computer games

This paper proposes a typology for studying Chinese text-based playable media (e.g. interactive installations, screen-based works, computer games) in terms of the freedom of user interaction with the Chinese characters. In the last two decades, various typologies/models/categories have been proposed to systematize the research of electronic literature and text-based digital art (Seiça, 2012). These classifications focus on different aspects of digital works, including but not limited to: visual experience of users, aesthetic principles, interactive features, technologies applied and structure of codes (Campas, 2004; Hayles, 2008; Strehovec, 2015). Although dissecting electronic literature with such diverse angles, these classifications are all based on examples of alphabetical languages and pay little attention to the abilities (freedom) of the user deconstructing and manipulating the basic linguistic units in the works. The Chinese language differentiates itself from any alphabetical-based languages by containing a huge number of graphemes instead of a dozens of letters. This creates a problem of how to input Chinese characters into western originated machines (from typewriter to computer) (Mullaney, 2017). In most of the modern commercial digital systems, all useable characters must be listed on the Unicode table as an alphanumeric code. However, these codes are arbitrarily assigned and make no sense for human users. People always need to input another set of codes or data, often based on the phonetic or written structure of a character, to the inputting software which will call the corresponding Unicode from the operating system. This handling of characters through “reinterpreting and rendering” (Cayley, 2003, p.281) is the norm of all Chinese computer systems. However, many Chinese text-based playable works intentionally or unintentionally sabotage such process flow and challenge the limitation imposed by the computer systems. Since this is a unique condition in Chinese-based works, this proposed typology will be based on the difference of how users manipulate the characters in the examined works and what extra freedom has been provided in comparison to consumer applications. This typology is not only needed for categorizing the characteristics of Chinese text-based playable media for future research, but can also provide a ground for systematically analyzing the difference between character-based and alphabetical-based languages in digital interacting environment. 

In this interview Michael J. Maguire also known as clevercelt writes about his development in the field of electronic literature both as creative writer and academic scholar. He gives some insights into the work of programming, his interest for computer games and the Phd thesis. The interview stands out for the many references to other authors.

Platforms have been around for decades, right under our video games and digital art. Those studying new media are now starting to dig down to the level of code to learn more about how computers are used in culture, but there have been few attempts to go deeper, to the metal — to look at the base hardware and software systems that are the foundation of computational expression.

Platform Studies investigates the relationships between the hardware and software design of computing systems and the creative works produced on those systems.

By choosing a platform, new media creators simplify development and delivery in many ways. Their work is supported and constrained by what this platform can do. Sometimes the influence is obvious: A monochrome platform can't display color, a video game console without a keyboard can't accept typed input. But there are more subtle ways that platforms interact with creative production, due to the idioms of programming that a language supports or due to transistor-level decisions made in video and audio hardware. In addition to allowing certain developments and precluding others, platforms also encourage and discourage different sorts of expressive new media work. In drawing raster graphics, the difference between setting up one scan line at a time, having video RAM with support for tiles and sprites, or having a native 3D model can end up being much more important than resolution or color depth.

Particular platform studies may emphasize different technical or cultural aspects and draw on different critical and theoretical approaches, but they will be united in being technically rigorous and in deeply investigating computing systems in their interactions with creativity, expression, and culture. While being addressed to readers without a computer science background, the Platform Studies books will drive deep into the workings of computers, opening an exciting new level for scholars, students, and general readers.

(Source: http://platformstudies.com/)

This essay, focusing on a slice of Swedish prose fiction from the 1960-70's, raises some questions concerning the artificial subject, along with discussions of game theory and automation. Torsten Ekbom's "strategic model theatre" Spelmatriser för Operation Albatross [1966; Game Matrices for Operation Albatross] is the main object of study. The (often very bizarre) text fragments in this book are, fictionally, generated by a number of computers. The figures acting in this game are devoid of skeletons; they are merely bodies of information, produced by machines. In dialogue with (among others) Norbert Wiener, Lewis Mumford, John von Neumann and Marshall McLuhan, Ekbom's text is found to illustrate a broader context of cybernetics and subjectivity in the 1960's. Finally, by using the shift of epistemological dominant (described by N. Katherine Hayles) from "presence-absence" to "pattern-randomness", Ekbom's Game Matrices for Operation Albatross finds itself in an historically interesting intersection of subjectivity: the life of Man in the 1960's is becoming increasingly "coded" and "randomized", while the computer is still that huge Machine, not yet, as today, the subconscious of everyday life.

Source: Author's Abstract

Most studies of digital media focus on elements familiar from traditional media. For example, studies of digital literature generally focus on surface text and audience experience. Interaction is considered only from the audience's perspective. This study argues that such approaches fail to interpret the element that defines digital media -- computational processes. An alternative is proposed here, focused on interpreting the internal operations of works. It is hoped that this will become a complement to (rather than replacement for) previous approaches. The examples considered include both processes developed as general practices and those of specific works. A detailed survey of story generation begins with James Meehan's Tale-Spin, interpreted through "possible worlds" theories of fiction (especially as employed by digital media theorists such as Marie-Laure Ryan). Previous interpretations missed important elements of Tale-Spin's fiction that are not visible in its output. Other story generation systems discussed include Minstrel, Universe, Brutus, and Terminal Time.These reveal the inevitably authored nature of simulations of human behavior. Further, the persistently anthropomorphizing approach to computational processes present in traditional artificial intelligence (and many critiques) is contrasted with authorship. Also discussed is Christopher Strachey's love letter generator for the Manchester Mark I -- likely the first work of digital literature, and arguably the first digital art of any kind. As with Tale-Spin, an interpretation of its processes offers more than output-focused approaches. In addition, this study considers works with algorithmic processes carried out by authors and audiences (rather than within the works) created by Raymond Queneau, Tristan Tzara, and Claude Shannon. Prior theoretical concepts are engaged, including Espen Aarseth's "cybertext," Michael Mateas's "expressive AI," and Chris Crawford's "process intensity." A set of concepts and vocabulary are proposed, beginning with the simple distinction between "surface," "data," and "process." Further chapters introduce the terms "implemented processes," "abstract processes," and "works of process." The most unfamiliar new term, "operational logics," names behavioral elements of systems that can be as elemental as gravity or as high-level as a quest structure. The computer game Fableembodies the strengths and weaknesses of using the same logics to drive graphical and linguistic behavior.

(Source: LABS: Leonardon ABstract Service)